References
 
  1. Danese MD, Powe NR, Sawin CT, Ladenson PW. Screening for Mild Thyroid Failure at the Periodic Health Examination: A Decision and Cost-Effectiveness Analysis. JAMA 1996; 276: 285-292.


  2. Charkes ND. The Many Causes of Subclinical Hyperthyroidism. Thyroid 1996; 6: 391-396.


  3. Berghout A, Wiersinga WM, Smits NJ, Touber JL. Interrelationships Between Age, Thyroid Volume, Thyroid Nodularity, and Thyroid Function in Patients with Sporadic Nontoxic Goiter. American Journal of Medicine 1990; 89: 602-608.


  4. Denham MJ, Wills EJ. A Clinico-Pathological Survey of Thyroid Glands in Old Age. Gerontology 1980; 26: 160-166.


  5. Pullen R, Hintze G. Size and Structure of the Thyroid in Old Age. Journal of the American Geriatric Society 1997; 5: 1539.


  6. Surks MI, Ocampo E. Subclinical Thyroid Disease. American Journal of Medicine 1996; 100: 217-223.


  7. Sawin CT, Geller A, Kaplan MM, Bacharach P, Wilson PWF, Hershman JM. Low Serum Thyrotropin (Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone) in Older Persons without Hyperthyroidism. Archives of Internal Medicine 1991; 151: 165- 168.


  8. Laurberg P, Bulow Pedersen I, Knudsen N, Ovesen L, Andersen S. Environmental Iodine Intake Affects the Type of Nonmalignant Thyroid Disease. Thyroid 2001; 11: 457-469.


  9. Samuels MH. Subclinical Thyroid Disease in the Elderly. Thyroid 1998; 8: 803-813.


  10. Bagchi N, Brown TR, Parish RF. Thyroid Dysfunction in Adults Over Age 55 Years: A study in an Urban US Community. Archives of Internal Medicine 1990; 150: 785-787.


  11. Tunbridge WMG, Evered DC, Hall R, Appleton D, Brewis M, Clark F, Evans JG, Young E, Bird T, Smith PA. The Spectrum of Thyroid Disease in a Community: The Whickham Survey. Clinical Endocrinology 1977; 7: 481-493.


  12. Vanderpump PJ, Tunbridge WMG. The Epidemiology of Thyroid Diseases. In Braverman LE, Utiger RD (eds): Werner and Ingbar’s The Thyroid, ed 8. Philadelphia, JB Lippincott, 2000, p 467-473.


  13. Canaris GJ, Manowitz NR, Mayor G, Ridgway EC. The Colorado Thyroid Disease Prevalence Study. Archives of Internal Medicine 2000; 160: 526-534.


  14. Hollowell JG, Staehling NW, Hannon WH, Flanders WD, Gunter EW, Spencer CA, Braverman LE. Serum Thyrotropin, Thyroxine, and Thyroid Antibodies in the United States Population (1988 to 1994): National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES III). Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, in press.


  15. Koutras DA. Subclinical Hyperthyroidism. Thyroid 1999; 9: 311-315.


  16. Lahey FH. Non-Activated (Apathetic) Type of Hyperthyroidism. New England Journal of Medicine 1931; 204: 747-748.


  17. Whybrow PC, Bauer M. Behavioral and Psychiatric Aspects of Thyrotoxicosis. In In Braverman LE, Utiger RD (eds): Werner and Ingbar’s The Thyroid, ed 8. Philadelphia, JB Lippincott, 2000, p 673-678.


  18. Oomen HAPC, Schipperijn AJM, Drexhage HA. The Prevalence of Affective Disorder and in Particular of a Rapid Cycling of Bipolar Disorder in Patients with Abnormal Thyroid Function Tests. Clinical Endocrinology 1996; 45: 215-223.


  19. Schlote-Sautter B, Schmidt R, Kaumeier S, Teuber J, Vardarli I, Usaldel KH. Subclinical Hyperthyroidism: Do Physical and Mental Symptoms Exist that Justify Treatment? In Reinwein D and Scriba PC (eds), The Various Types of Hyperthyroidism. Munich: Urban & Schwartzenberg, pp. 319-322, 1990.


  20. Schlote B, Schaaf L, Schmidt R, Pohl T, Vardarli I, Schiebeler H, Zober MA, Usadel KH. Mental And Physical State in Subclinical Hyperthyroidism: Investigations in a Normal Working Population. Biological Psychiatry 1992; 32: 48- 56.


  21. Riggs BL, Melton LJ. Involutional Osteoporosis. New England Journal of Medicine 1986; 314: 1676-1686.


  22. Wasnich RD. Epidemiology of Osteoporosis. In Primer on the Metabolic Bone Diseases and Disorders of Mineral Metabolism, 4th Edition. Lippincott: Philadelphia 1999; pp 257-259.


  23. Baran DT, Braverman LE. Editorial: Thyroid Hormones and Bone Mass. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 1991; 72: 1182- 1183.


  24. Harvey RD, McHardy KC, Reid IW, Paterson F, Bewsher PD, Duncan A, Robins SP. Measurement of Bone Collagen Degradation in Hyperthyroidism and During Thyroxine Replacement Therapy Using Pyridium Cross-Links as Specific Urinary Markers. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 1991; 72: 1189-1194.


  25. Burman KD, Monchik JM, Earll JM, Wartofsky L. Ionized and Total Serum Calcium and Parathyroid Hormone in Hyperthyroidism. Annals of Internal Medicine 1976; 84: 668-671.


  26. Lee MS, Kim SY, Lee MC, Cho BY, Lee HK, Koh CS, Min HK. Negative Correlation between the Change in Bone Mineral Density and Serum Osteocalcin in Patients with Hyperthyroidism. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 1990; 70: 766-770.


  27. Ross DS. Hyperthyroidism, Thyroid Hormone Therapy, and Bone. Thyroid 1994; 4: 319-326.


  28. Ross DS, Neer RM, Ridgway RC, Daniels GH. Subclinical Hyperthyroidism and Reduced Bone Density as a Possible Result of Prolonged Suppression of the Pituitary-Thyroid Axis with L-Thyroxine. American Journal of Medicine 1987; 82: 1167-1170.


  29. Grant DJ, McMurdo MET, Mole PA, Paterson CR, Davies RR. Suppressed TSH Levels Secondary to Thyroxine Replacement Therapy are not Associated with Osteoporosis. Clinical Endocrinology 1993; 39: 529-533.


  30. Schneider DL, Barrett-Connor EL, Morton DJ. Thyroid Hormone Use and Bone Mineral Density in Elderly Women: Effects of Estrogen. JAMA 1994; 271: 1245-1249.


  31. Lehmke J, Bogner U, Felsenberg D, Peters H, Schleusener H. Determination of Bone Mineral Density by Quantitative Computed Tomography and Single Photon Absorptiometry in Subclinical Hyperthyroidism: A Risk of Early Osteopaenia in Post-Menopausal Women. Clinical Endocrinology 1992; 36: 511-517.


  32. Kung AWC, Lorentz T, Tam SCF. Thyroxine Suppressive Therapy Decreases Bone Mineral Density in Post-Menopausal Women. Clinical Endocrinology 1993; 39: 535-540.


  33. Campbell J, Day P, Diamond T. Fine Adjustments in Thyroxine Replacement and its Effect on Bone Metabolism. Thyroid 1996; 6: 75-78.


  34. Hanna FWF, Pettit RJ, Ammari F, Evans WD, Sandeman D, Lazarus JH. Effect of Replacement Doses of Thyroxine on Bone Mineral Density. Clinical Endocrinology 1998; 48: 229-234.


  35. Gou CY, Weetman AP, Eastell R. Longitudinal Changes of Bone Mineral Density and Bone Turnover in Postmenopausal Women on Thyroxine. Clinical Endocrinology 1997; 46: 301-307.


  36. Mudde AH, Reijnders FJL, Kruseman CAN. Peripheral Bone Density in Women with Untreated Multinodular Goiter. Clinical Endocrinology 1992; 37: 35-39.


  37. Leese GP, Jung RT, Guthrie C, Waugh N, Browning MCK. Morbidity in Patients on L-Thyroxine: A Comparison of those with a Normal TSH to those with a Suppressed TSH. Clinical Endocrinology 1992; 37: 500-503.


  38. Bauer DC, Ettinger B, Nevitt MC, Stone KL. Risk for Fracture in Women with Low Serum Levels of Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone. Annals of Internal Medicine 2001; 134: 561-568.


  39. Marcocci C, Golia F, Vignali E, Pinchera A. Skeletal integrity in Men Chronically Treated with Suppressive Doses of L-Thyroxine. Journal of Bone Mineral Research 1997; 12: 72-77.


  40. Lecomte P, Lecureuil N, Osorio-Salazar C, Lecureuil M, Valat C. Effects of Suppressive Doses of Levothyroxine Treatment on Sex-Hormone- Binding Globulin and Bone Metabolism. Thyroid 1995; 5: 19-23.


  41. Földes J, Tarjan G, Szathmari M, Varga F, Kresznal I, Horvath C. Bone Mineral Density in Patients with Endogenous Subclinical Hyperthyroidism: Is this Thyroid Status a Risk Factor for Osteoporosis? Clinical Endocrinology 1993; 39: 521-527.


  42. Gurlek A, Gedik O. Effect of Endogenous Subclinical Hyperthyroidism on Bone Metabolism and Bone Mineral Density in Premenopausal Women. Thyroid 1999; 9: 539-543.


  43. Paul TL, Kerrigan J, Kelly AM, Braverman LE, Baran DT. Long-Term L-Thyroxine Therapy is associated with Decreased Hip Bone Density in Pre-Menopausal Women. JAMA 1988; 259: 3137- 3141.


  44. Uzzan B, Campos J, Cucherat M, Nony P, Boissel JP, Perret GY. Effects on Bone Mass of Long Term Treatment with Thyroid Hormones: A Meta-Analysis. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 1996; 81: 4278 -4289.


  45. Faber J, Galloe AM. Changes in Bone Mass during Prolonged Subclinical Hyperthyroidism due to L-Thyroxine Treatment: A Meta-Analysis. European Journal of Endocrinology 1994; 130: 350-356.


  46. Rosen HN, Moses AC, Garber J, Ross DS, Lee SL, Ferguson L, Chen V, Lee K, Greenspan SL. Randomized Trial Pamidronate in Patients with Thyroid Cancer: Bone Density is not Reduced by Suppressive Doses of Thyroxine, but is Increased by Cyclic Intravenous Pamidronate. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and metabolism 1998; 83: 2324-2330.


  47. Schneider DL, Barrett-Connor EL, Morton DJ. Thyroid Hormone Use and Bone Mineral Density in Elderly Women: Effects of Estrogen. JAMA 1994; 271: 1245-1249.


  48. Kahaly GJ, Nieswandt J, Mohr-Kahaly S. Cardiac Risks of Hyperthyroidism in the Elderly. Thyroid 1998; 8: 1165-1169.


  49. Klein I, Ojamaa K. Thyroid Hormone and the Cardiovascular System. New England Journal of Medicine 2001; 344: 501-509.


  50. Biondi B, Fazio S, Cuocolo A, Sabatini D, Nicolai E, Lombardi G, Salvatore M, Sacca L. Impaired Cardiac Reserve and Exercise Capacity in Patients Receiving Long-Term Thyrotropin-Suppressive Therapy with Thyroxine. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 1996; 81: 4224-4228.


  51. Biondi B, Fazio S, Carella C, Amato G, Cittadini A, Lupoli G, Sacca L, Bellastella A, Lombardi G. Cardiac Effects of Long Term Thyrotropin-Suppressive Therapy with Thyroxine. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 1993; 77: 334-338.


  52. Shapiro LE, Sievert R, Ong L, Ocampo EL, Chance RA, Lee M, Nanna M, Ferrick K, Surks MI. Minimal Cardiac Effects in Asymptomatic Athyreotic Patients Chronically Treated with Thyrotropin-Suppressive Doses of L-Thyroxine. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 1997; 82: 2592-2595.


  53. Tenerz A, Forberg R, Jansson R. Is a More Active Attitude Warranted in Patients with Subclinical Thyrotoxicosis? Journal of Internal Medicine 1990; 228: 229-233.


  54. Sawin CT, Geller A, Wolf PA, Belanger AJ, Baker E, Bacharach P, Wilson PWF, Benjamin EJ, D’Agostino RB. Low Serum Thyrotropin Concentrations as a Risk Factor for Atrial Fibrillation in Older Persons. New England Journal of Medicine 1994; 331: 1249-1252.


  55. Ladenson PW. Thyrotoxicosis and the Heart: Old and Something New. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 1993; 77: 332- 333.


  56. Ross DS. Subclinical Thyrotoxicosis. In Braverman LE, Utiger RD (eds): Werner and Ingbar’s The Thyroid, ed 8. Philadelphia, JB Lippincott, 2000, p 1007-1012.


  57. Huysmans DA, Nieuwlatt WA, Erdtsieck RJ, Schellekens AP, Bus JW, Bravenboer B, Hermus AR. Administration of a Single Low Dose of Recombinant Human Thyrotropin Significantly Enhances Thyroid Radioiodide Uptake in Nontoxic Nodular Goiter. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 2000; 85: 3592- 3596.


  58. Torres MS, Ramirez L, Simkin PH, Braverman LE, Emerson CH. Effect of Various Doses of Recombinant Human Thyrotropin on the Thyroid Radioactive Iodine Uptake and Serum Levels of Thyroid Hormones and Thyroglobulin in Normal Subjects. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 2001; 86: 1660-1664.


  59. Faber J, Jensen IW, Petersen L, Nygaard B, Hegedus L, Siersbaek-Nielsen K. Normalization of Serum Thyrotropin by Means of Radioiodine Treatment in Subclinical Hyperthyroidism: Effect on Bone Loss in Postmenopausal Women. Clinical Endocrinology 1998; 48: 285-290.


  60. Mudde AH, Houben AJHM, Kruseman CAN. Bone Metabolism During Anti-Thyroid Drug Treatment of Endogenous Subclinical Hyperthyroidism. Clinical Endocrinology 1994; 41: 421- 424.


  61. Jayme JJ, Ladenson PW. Subclinical Thyroid Dysfunction in the Elderly. Trends in Endocrinology and Metabolism 1994; 5: 79.


  62. Utiger RD. Subclinical Hyperthyroidism – Just a Low Serum Thyrotropin Concentration, or Something More? New England Journal of Medicine 1994; 331: 1302-1303.


  63. Toft AD. Subclinical hyperthyroidism. New England Journal of Medicine 2001; 345:512–516